Product Description
This volume of the CANCER TREATMENT AND RESEARCH series integrates articles that highlight some of the newest developments in the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of gynecologic malignancies, with chapters that provide an overview of selected areas of controversy. The volume is not an abbreviated textbook of gynecologic oncology, but rather a collection of selected works that can provide the reader with a better perspective on the areas of change or controversy within the field. The book is a resource to help elucidate the basis for the optimism and controversy associated with these selected topics in gynecologic oncology. With this perspective, the clinician will be in the best position to critically evaluate new data as it emerges, and recognize significant advances as they occur.
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Gynecologic Oncology: Controversies and New Developments

The organs and tissues of the body are made up of tiny building blocks called cells. Cancer is a disease of these cells. Cells in different parts of the body may look and work differently but most reproduce themselves in the same way.

Cells are constantly becoming old and dying, and new cells are produced to replace them. Normally, cells divide in an orderly and controlled manner. If for some reason the process gets out of control, the cells carry on dividing, developing into a lump which is called a tumour.

Cancer is a term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and can invade other tissues. Cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems.

Brain Cancer

A brain tumor is a group or clump of abnormally growing cells that can be found in or on the brain. They’re rare in kids Brain tumors can either start in the brain or spread there from another part of the body – some cancers that start in other parts of the body may have cells that travel to the brain and start growing there.

Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers in the world. It is a leading cause of cancer death in men and women in the United States. Cigarette smoking causes most lung cancers. The more cigarettes you smoke per day and the earlier you started smoking, the greater your risk of lung cancer. High levels of pollution, radiation and asbestos exposure may also increase risk. Cancer that forms in tissues of the lung, usually in the cells lining air passages. The two main types are small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer.

It usually spreads to different parts of the body more slowly than small cell lung cancer. Squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and large cell carcinoma are three types of non-small cell lung cancer. Small cell lung cancer also called oat cell cancer, accounts for about 20% of all lung cancer.

Skin Cancer

Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the United States. The two most common types are basal cell cancer and squamous cell cancer. They usually form on the head, face, neck, hands and arms. Another type of skin cancer, melanoma, is more dangerous but less common. Skin cancers are the fastest growing type of cancer in the United States. Skin cancer represents the most commonly diagnosed malignancy, surpassing lung, breast, colorectal and prostate cancer. Cancer that forms in tissues of the skin. There are several types of skin cancer. Skin cancer that forms in melanocytes (skin cells that make pigment) is called melanoma. Skin cancer that forms in basal cells (small, round cells in the base of the outer layer of skin) is called basal cell carcinoma

Ear Cancer

Cancer of the outer ear occurs chiefly in instances where the outer ear has been exposed for many years to direct sunlight. A small and at first painless ulcer, with a dry scab covering it, that slowly enlarges and deepens may be a skin cancer. It is diagnosed by removing a small bit of tissue from the edge and examining it under a microscope.

Head And Neck Cancer

Tobacco is the most preventable cause of these deaths a lump in the neck Cancers that begin in the head or neck usually spread to lymph nodes in the neck before they spread elsewhere. A lump in the neck that lasts more than two weeks should be seen by a physician as soon as possible. Of course, not all lumps are cancer. But a lump (or lumps) in the neck can be the first sign of cancer of the mouth, throat, voice box (larynx), thyroid gland, or of certain lymphomas or blood cancers. Such lumps are generally painless and continue to enlarge steadily.

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Is there more than one type of lung cancer?

There are two types of lung cancer – non-small cell and small cell lung cancer. The two types are distinguishable because of how the cancer cells expand, grow and spread throughout the body.

There are three types of non-small cell lung cancer (the most common form of lung cancer). They are adenocarcinoma, squamus cell carcinoma, and large-cell carcinoma. Though rarer, small cell lung cancer occurs in approximately a quarter of all people diagnosed with lung cancer.

Can I prevent lung cancer?

There are three ways to prevent lung cancer – quit smoking, avoid second-hand smoke and stay away from air-borne carcinogens at work. If you’re concerned about your risk of developing lung cancer, avoiding tobacco smoke is typically your best defense.

What are the major causes of lung cancer?

The primary cause of lung cancer in most cases is smoking tobacco products. Of all the facts about lung cancer, this is the most critical and apparent. The carcinogens in tobacco smoke will damage cells. Other causes include exposure to carcinogens like asbestos or radon. Genetics may also play a role in the prevalence of the disease.

How do doctors detect lung cancer?

The early stages of lung cancer typically don’t exhibit any symptoms. The only sure-fire way to detect the disease is with a chest X-ray.

For a confident diagnosis, a biopsy is required. When a doctor performs a biopsy, he or she removes a small amount of tissue from the lung to test it for cancerous cells.

Does lung cancer have any symptoms?

Most lung cancer symptoms don’t appear until after the disease has reached the later stages. That said, the symptoms include constant coughing or wheezing, loss of appetite, chest pains, upper abdomen pains, bronchitis or pneumonia, blood being coughed up, general fatigue, a persistent hoarse voice and a dry, sore throat.

Can lung cancer be treated and how?

Lung cancer can be treated, but the treatments will depend on how far advanced the disease has progressed, the patient’s strength and the type of lung cancer. Lung cancer is typically treated with one of – or a combination of – chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery.

Is mesothelioma a type of lung cancer?

Mesothelioma is a rare form of lung cancer that is typically caused by asbestos exposure. The disease attacks the delicate skin lining of the lungs, and tumors form.

Are men or women more at risk?

Female smokers are twice as likely to develop lung cancer than male smokers.

I’m older and a smoker, will quitting really help me?

Yes, quitting at any age can help prevent lung cancer. The risk of developing lung cancer is reduced dramatically each year a person smokes – whether that person is 20 or 70. Of all the facts about lung cancer, probably the most saddening is that the majority of cases are preventable.

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The statistics of cervical cancer in the United States, according to American Cancer Society (ACS), shows that about 11,150 women are diagnosing with this cancer and approximately 3,670 women die from this cancer every year.

To understand more about cervical cancer, it is important to note what a cervix is first. The cervix is the lower part of the uterus (womb) that connects the uterus to the vagina (birth canal) in a woman’s body.

Usually, cervical cancer exhibits no symptoms to detect the presence of cancer in your body. It is known as a slow growing form of cancer. When cancer develops in your body, the healthy cells in the cervix begin to change into abnormal cells, which then turn into pre-cancerous cells. If left untreated, these pre-cancerous cells will turn into cancer.

Risk factors of cervical cancer:

Although the cause of cervical cancer is not known there are certain risk factors that increase the risk of developing this cancer. Risk factors are the things that will affect the chances of developing a disease greater.

Human Papilloma Virus (HPV), a sexual transmitted disease is highly associated with invasive cervical cancer.

Sexual transmitted diseases occur due to sexual contacts with an infected person. Chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrhea, genital herpes, HIV/AIDS are some of he examples of sexual transmitted diseases.

Other risk factors that increase your chances of developing cervical cancer are: a history of sexual transmitted diseases, having sexual intercourse with multiple partners, having sexual activities in very young age (without using contraceptives).

Smoking doubles your risk of having cancer of the cervix. Weakened immune system, regular usage of birth control pills, age, giving birth to many children, and irregular pap tests increases your risk of developing cervical cancer.

As the cause of cervical cancer is unknown, it can be detected with regular Pap tests or pap smears. It is very important for you to have regular Pap tests to identify the condition early to take appropriate treatment and prevent cervical cancer from developing.

Pap test to detect cervical cancer:

With Pap tests, you can detect the cancer in the early stages before it spreads to other parts of the body. Pap smear is a procedure where scraped cells from the cervix are examined under a microscope to check for the changes in the cells of your cervix that leads to cervical cancer.

The rate of cervical cancer in women has greatly decreased in recent years in the United States due to regular pap smears.

As cervical cancer is a malignant tumor, it is very important for you to have Pap tests done annually. Remember, it is not a good idea to wait for signs to consult a doctor as early detection is the key to being treated successfully. Visit Online Cancer Blog

The answers are not completely known. There is a strong genetic component to some cases of colo-rectal cancer. (The disease is sometimes called colo-rectal cancer, to indicate that it occurs in the rectum as well as the colon.) There are certain behaviors that make getting colon cancer more likely. And there are certain groups that people with this kind of cancer tend to fall into. But many people who get colon cancer fall into no risk group at all, or very few.

It is estimated that 25% of colon cancers have some genetic component. For that reason, people with colo-rectal cancer in their families are considered to be at higher risk. There are two known hereditary disorders that make cancer of the colon much more likely. One is FAP, familial adenomatous polyposis, which causes multiple polyps to form in the colon. Nearly 100% of untreated people with this disorder will have colon cancer by age 40. Another genetic disorder that causes colon cancer is HNPCC. People who inherit this disorder, hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer, have about an 80% chance of getting this cancer in their lifetime. Both these diseases are fairly rare. There are other genetic defects that contribute to colo-rectal cancer, but their effect is not so clear, because it is not so strong. Probably a combination of these weaker genes is needed to start a cancer, or a combination of genetic and environmental effects.

Behavior is another strong component of colon or rectal cancer risk. People who smoke are more likely to get colon cancer, mostly because of the poisons smoking introduces into the body. Lack of exercise is believed to contribute to colon cancer risk. Obesity contributes to colon cancer risk. A diet high in cholesterol and fat, one that includes a lot of red meat, is believed to contribute to the risk of colo-rectal cancer. On the other hand, diets with a lot of calcium and folate seem to lower risk. The studies on drinking alcohol seem to go both ways. Therefore, doctors advise moderation.

Certain diseases make colon cancer more likely. These include Diabetes, which may increase the risk as much as 40%. Inflammatory Bowel Disorders, such as Crohn’s disease or Ulcerative Colitis, increase the risk of colon cancer. Previous polyps or other cancers also increase risk.

Risk increases with age. That’s why it is recommended that a colonoscopy be done at age fifty, and periodically thereafter. The risk increases with exposure to radiation, to asbestos,and even with consistently working the night shift.

Another risk factor is race. Whites and African-Americans are at higher risk of getting colon cancer than Native Americans and Asians. Social status also has an effect on risk: minority populations are more likely to die of colon cancer, probably because, as a group, they have poorer access to medical care.

http://www.ameripath.com/patie nts/gi/adenomatous.htm

http://coloncancer.about.com/o d/causesofcancer/a/Colon_Cance r.htm

http://www.genome.gov/10000466

http://www.cancer.gov/cancerto pics/types/colon-and-rectal

http://coloncancer.about.com/o d/environment/Environment.htm

Pancreatic Tumors in Children

Over the last 25 years the incidence of stomach cancer in the western world has decreased by 50% and the resulting death rate is less than a third of what it used to be but in less developed countries it is still a major cause of death, probably because in these countries by the time the disease is diagnosed (usually by means of a Barium meal) the stomach cancer is at a very advanced stage.

TYPES OF STOMACH CANCER
There are several different types of stomach cancer, some of which are very rare. The most common types of stomach cancer start in the glandular cells of the stomach lining (adenocarcinomas), this is where stomach acid and digestive enzymes are made, and where most stomach cancers start. When the stomach cancer becomes more advanced, it can travel through the bloodstream and spread to organs such as the liver, lungs, and bones. Stomach cancers that start in the lymphatic tissue (lymphoma), in the stomach muscular tissue (sarcoma) or in the tissues that support the organs of the digestive system (gastrointestinal stromal tumors) are less common and are treated in different ways.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Early clues to stomach cancer are chronic dyspepsia and epigastric discomfort, followed in later stages by weight loss, anorexia, a feeling of fullness after eating, anemia and fatigue. Blood in the stools may also be present and if the Cancer is in the Cardia (top) vomiting may occur.

CAUSATION
The exact cause of stomach cancer is unknown although the presence of the Helicopter pylori bacterium seems to be a major factor. Predisposing factors include environmental influences such as smoking and high alcohol intake. Because stomach cancer is more common amongst those with a family history and with people with type A blood, genetic factors are also implicated. Dietary factors, particularly methods of food preservation such as pickling, smoking or salting also have an influence on the prevalence of stomach cancer.

DIAGNOSIS
Stomach cancer is diagnosed through an examination that may include an upper gastrointestinal (GI) series; endoscopy or gastroscopy where a thin flexible tube is passed down the throat so the doctor can see into the stomach, esophagus and upper part of the bowel Barium meals and Barium swallows. Because stomach cancer can spread to the liver, the pancreas, and other organs near the stomach as well as to the lungs, the doctor may order a CT scan, a PET scan, an endoscopic ultrasound exam, or other tests to check these areas.

Stomach cancer can spread (metastasize) to the esophagus or the small intestine, and can extend through the stomach wall to nearby lymph nodes and organs. Metastasis occurs in 80-90% of individuals with stomach cancer, with a five year survival rate of 75% in those diagnosed in early stages and less than 30% of those diagnosed in late stages.

TREATMENT
Although stomach cancer may be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy, in many cases surgery is the treatment of choice. Even in patients whose disease is not considered surgically curable, resection offers a palliative effect and improves potential benefits from chemotherapy.

The nature and extent of the cancer determines what kind of surgery is most appropriate. Common surgical procedures include, partial and total removal of the stomach.
Antiemetics can control nausea, which increases as the cancer advances. In the more advanced stages, sedatives and tranquilizers may be necessary to control anxiety. Narcotics are commonly necessary to control sever and unremitting pain.
In some cases of advanced stomach cancer, a lazer beam directed through an endoscope can vaporize most of the tumor and relieve obstruction without an operation.

PROGNOSIS
Stomach cancer is curable if detected early, but most people do not seek medical help until the disease is quite advanced, possibly because symptoms occur late and are often vague and non-specific. Eating fresh fruits and vegetables that contain antioxidant vitamins (such as A and C) appears to lower the risk of stomach cancer. The rate of stomach cancer is about doubled in smokers so the cessation of smoking is essential.

In the United States and most of the Western world, the 5-year survival rate ranges from 5% to 15%. In Japan, where stomach cancer often is diagnosed early, the 5 year survival rate is about 50%. Five year survival rates for more advanced stomach cancers range from, around 20% for those with regional disease to almost nil for those with distant metastases.

Treatment for metastatic stomach cancer can relieve symptoms and sometimes prolong survival, but long remissions are not common. The survival of inoperable stomach cancer is usually only a few months if untreated. With chemotherapy the average survival is about 12 months. If cancer is found before it has spread, the five-year relative survival rate is about 61%.